Chemical engineering thermodynamics lecture notes pdf

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Thermodynamics Lecture Notes Download book Online freebookcentre. Course Learning Objectives: To be able to use the First Law of Thermodynamics to estimate the potential for thermo - mechanical energy conversion in aerospace power and propulsion systems. Today, thousands of chemical engineers are working around the globe and scores of young men and women are being trained. The idea of treating these processes of the chemical industry as unit operations was also put forward by the professors of the MIT.

They characterized the physical operations necessary for manufacturing chemicals as unit operations. During , P. Groggins proposed a similar approach to classifying chemical operations as unit processes. Such processes include nitration, oxidation, hydrogenation, sulphonation, chlorination, and esterification. Development of a lab- scale process, designed by a chemist, into a large-scale industrial process is a difficult task and requires the knowledge of the chemicals as well as the mechanical aspects of the equipment required.

The physical operations necessary for manufacturing chemicals are called unit operations. It is a method of organizing much of the subject matter of chemical engineering. Unit operations can be, no doubt, called the heart of chemical engineering. The unit operations concept is based on the fact that by systematically studying the operations such as heat transfer, mass transfer, fluid flow, drying, distillation, evaporation, absorption, extraction, and mixing involved in the chemical industry, the treatment of all processes is unified and simplified.

The unit operations are largely used to conduct the primary physical steps of preparing the reactants, separating and purifying the products, recycling unconverted reactants, and controlling the energy transfer into or out of the chemical reactors. The design of the equipment involved for these operations is also studied in unit operations.

Because of the complexity and variety of the modern chemical manufacturing processes the need for arranging the different processes systematically has become undeniable. The chemical steps themselves are conducted by controlling the flow of material and energy to and from the reaction zone. It is a part of a larger branch of engineering called continuum mechanics, which deals with the behavior of fluids as well as stressed solids.

A fluid is a substance that does not permanently resist distortion. An attempt to alter the shape of a mass of fluid results in layers of fluids sliding over one another until a new shape is attained.

During the change in shape, shear stresses exist depending upon the viscosity of the fluid and the rate of sliding, but when the final shape is achieved all the shear stresses disappear.

A fluid in equilibrium is free from shear stresses. Fluids may be compressible or incompressible. If the density of a fluid changes slightly with the changes in temperature and pressure then such a fluid is called incompressible and if the density changes significantly then such a fluid is said to be compressible. Gases are generally considered to be compressible while liquids are considered incompressible.

The behavior of fluids is very important in chemical engineering. It is a major part of unit operations principle. Understanding of fluids is essential not only for accurately treating problems in the movement of fluids through pipes, compressors, pumps, and all kinds of process equipment but also for the study of heat flow and many separation principles that depend on diffusion and mass transfer.

Design and study of measuring devices such as flow meters, area meters, pressure gauges , transportation equipment such as compressors and pumps , and mixing and agitation equipment such as mixers and agitators are considered in fluid mechanics. It is concerned with the properties and behavior of fluids. In the case of liquids this subject is called hydrostatics and in the case of gases it is called pneumatics. Fluid dynamics, also called fluid flow, deals with the flowing fluids or with fluids when section of the fluid is in motion relative to the other parts.

In industrial applications, they have to transport fluids from one point to another through pipes or open ducts which require the determination of pressure drops in the system, selection of a proper type of pump or compressor, power required for pumping or compression, and measurement of flow rates. All these aspects are studied in fluid flow. The driving force for heat transfer is the temperature difference per unit area or temperature gradient.

In a majority of chemical processes heat is either given out or absorbed. Most of the times the fluids must be heated or cooled in a variety of equipment such as boilers, heaters, condensers, furnaces, dryers, evaporators, and reactors. In all of these cases the fundamental problem encountered is the transferring of heat at the desired rate. Some times it is necessary to prevent the loss of heat from vessels or pipes.

The control of flow of heat at the desired rate is one of the most important areas of chemical engineering. The principles and laws governing the rates of heat flow are studied under the heading of heat transfer.

Even though the transfer of heat is involved in every unit operation, in evaporation, drying, and combustion the primary concern is the transfer of heat rather than the transfer of mass and these operations are governed by the rate of heat transfer.

Laws and equations of heat transfer are used for the designing of the equipment required for these processes. Evaporation is the process used to concentrate a solution consisting of a non-volatile solute and volatile solvent. In a majority of evaporations the solvent is water. Drying is the removal of relatively small amounts of water or other liquid from the solid material to reduce the content of residual liquid to a low value.

Conduction Conduction is the transfer of heat through fixed material such as stationary walls. In a solid, the flow of heat is the result of the transfer of vibrational energy from one molecule to another, and in fluids it occurs in addition as a result of the transfer of kinetic energy. Heat transfer through conduction may also arise from the movement of free electrons.

Chemical engineering- an overview 5 Convection Convection is the heat transfer occurring due to the mixing of relatively hot and cold portions of a fluid. If this mixing takes place due to density differences, then such a process is called natural or free convection, e.

However, if the mixing takes place due to eddies produced by mechanical agitation then such a process is called forced convection. It is important to note that convection requires mixing of fluid elements and is not governed by just the temperature difference as in conduction and radiation.

Radiation Radiation is the transfer of radiant energy from one body to another. All materials radiate thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. When radiation falls on a second body it may be partially reflected, transmitted, or absorbed. It is only the fraction that is absorbed that appears as heat in the body. While heat transfer deals with the transfer of heat between hot and cold bodies independently, Process heat transfer deals with the rates of heat exchange as they occur in the heat-transfer equipment of the engineering and chemical processes.

This process can occur in a gas, liquid, or vapor. It can result from the random velocities of the molecules molecular diffusion or from the circulating or eddy currents present in a turbulent fluid eddy diffusion.

Like temperature gradient is the driving force for heat transfer, the driving force for mass transfer is the concentration gradient. Many unit operations such as distillation, absorption, extraction, leaching, membrane separation, dehumidification, crystallization, ion exchange, and adsorption are considered as mass transfer operations.

Even though transfer of heat is also involved in these operations but the rate of mass transfer governs the rate phenomena in these processes. Unlike purely mechanical separation processes, which utilize density difference and particle size, these methods make use of differences in vapor pressure, solubility, or diffusivity. Distillation The function is to separate, by vaporization, a liquid mixture of miscible and volatile substances into individual components or, in some cases into groups of components.

Absorption In absorption a soluble vapor is absorbed by means of a liquid in which the solute gas is more or less soluble, from its mixture with an inert gas. The solute is subsequently recovered from the liquid by distillation, and the absorbing liquid can either be discarded or reused. Desorption When a solute is transferred from the solvent liquid to the gas phase, the operation is known as stripping or desorption.

Usually the carrier gas is virtually insoluble in the liquid. Membrane separations In membrane separations, including gas separations, reverse osmosis, and ultra filtration, one component of a liquid or gaseous mixture passes through a selective membrane more readily than the other components.

Adsorption In adsorption a solute is removed from either a liquid or a gas through contact with a solid adsorbent, the surface of which has a special affinity for the solute. Liquid extraction Also called solvent extraction, a mixture of two components is treated by a solvent that preferentially dissolves one or more of the components in the mixture.

The mixture so treated is called the raffinate and the solvent-rich phase is called extract. In extraction of solids, or leaching, soluble material is dissolved from its mixture from an inert solid by means of a liquid solvent.

Crystallization This process is used to obtain materials in attractive and uniform crystals of good purity, separating a solute from a melt or a solution and leaving impurities behind. Solids in general are more difficult to handle than fluids. In processing solids appear in a variety of forms such as angular pieces, continuous sheets, finely divided powders.

They may be hard and abrasive, tough and rubbery, soft or fragile, dusty, cohesive, free flowing, or sticky. Whatever their form, means must be found to handle these solids. Mixing of solids resembles to some extent with the mixing of low-viscosity liquids, however, mixing of solids requires much more power.

In mixing two or more separate components are intermingled to obtain a uniform product. Some of the mixers and blenders used for liquids are also used for solids. Solid mixers mainly used are kneaders, dispersers, masticators, mixer-extruders, mixing rolls, pug mills, ribbon blenders, screw mixers, tumbling mixers, and impact wheel.

Size reduction Size reduction, referred to as communition, is a term applied to the methods and ways used to cut or breakdown solid particles in smaller pieces.

This class of separation processes consists of techniques based on physical differences between the particles such as size, shape, or density. The operations included in mechanical separations are screening, filtration, and gravity and centrifugal settling Screening Screening is a method of separating particles according to size alone.

In industrial screening the solids are dropped or thrown against a screening surface. The undersize also called fines pass through the screen openings leaving behind oversize also called tails particles. Industrial screens are made from woven wire, silk, plastic cloth, metal, and perforated or slotted metal plates.

Stationary screens, grizzlies, gyrating screens, vibrating screens, and centrifugal sifters are used for this purpose. Filtration Filtration is the separation of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through a filtering medium through which the solids are deposited.

Industrial filtrations range from simple straining to highly complex separations. The fluid may be a liquid or a gas; the valuable stream from the filter may be fluid, solid, or both.

In a cross-flow filter the feed suspension flows under pressure at a fairly high velocity across the filter medium. Some of the liquid passes through the medium as a clear filtrate, leaving behind a more concentrated suspension.

Gravity settling processes are based on the fact that particles heavier than the suspended fluid can be removed from a gas or liquid in a large settling tank in which the fluid velocity is low and the particles are allowed a sufficient time to settle out.

A given particle in a given fluid settles under gravitational force at a fixed maximum rate. To increase the settling rate the force of gravity acting on the particle may be replaced by a much stronger centrifugal force.

Centrifugal separators, to certain extent, have replaced the gravity separators because of their greater effectiveness with fine drops and particles and their much smaller size for a given capacity. The most widely used type of centrifugal separators is the cyclone separator. Other types mostly used are centrifugal decanters, tubular centrifuges, disk centrifuge, nozzle discharge centrifuge, and centrifugal classifiers.

Thermodynamics is a very useful branch of engineering science and is very helpful in the treatment of such processes as refrigeration, flashing, and the development of boilers and steam and gas turbines. Thermodynamics is governed by two rules called the first and second law of thermodynamics. First law of thermodynamics First law of thermodynamics states that Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, however it can be transferred from one form to another.

This law is also known as law of conservation of energy. In thermodynamic sense, heat and work refer to energy in transit across the boundary between the system and surroundings. These forms of energy can never be stored. Energy is stored in its potential, kinetic, and internal forms.

These forms reside with material objects and exist because of position, configuration, and motion of matter. Second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to transfer heat from a cold body to a hot body unless external work is done on the system. Or, no heat engine operating continuously in a cycle can extract heat from a hot reservoir and convert it into useful work without having a sink. The universal applicability of this science is shown by the fact that physicists, chemists, and engineers employ it.

In each case the basic principles are the same but the applications differ. Thermodynamics enables a chemical engineer to cope with a wide variety of problems. Among the most important of these are the determinations of heat and work requirements for many physical and chemical processes, and the determination of equilibrium conditions for chemical reactions and for the transfer of chemical species between phases.

Chemical engineering- an overview 9 1. It is primarily concerned with the exploitation of chemical reactions on a commercial scale. Its goal is the successful design and operation of chemical reactors. This activity, probably more than any other, sets chemical engineering apart as a distinct branch of engineering profession. Design of equipment for the physical treatment steps is studied in the unit operations.

The chemical treatment step of a process is studied in chemical reaction engineering. The treatment stages are the heart of a process and the core factor that makes or breaks the process economically. Reactor design uses information, knowledge, and experience from a variety of areas such as thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, mass transfer, and economics.

The chemical engineering profession includes a wide variety of activities in a number of institutions including industry, research, government, and academia. Chemical engineering mainly deals with industrial processes in which raw materials are changed into useful products. The chemical engineers develop, design, and engineer both complete processes and the equipment used; choose the proper raw material; operate the plants efficiently, safely, and economically; and see to it that the products meet the requirements set by the customers.

Chemical engineering is both an art and a science. Chemical engineers work in numerous areas besides petroleum refining and the petrochemical industries because their background and experience are easily portable and found useful.

Products of concern to chemical engineers range from commodity chemicals like sulphuric acid and chlorine to high-tech items like lithographic support for electronic industry Silicon chips, microprocessors and genetically modified biochemical agents. The number of chemical engineers working throughout the world is enormous.

These engineers are employed by both private and public enterprises. They work in a variety of fields besides process and designing. The wide spectrum of application of chemical engineers shows that chemical engineers must be trained to function in any phase of chemical manufacturing.

A chemical engineer during his career performs various activities. From plant design to successful plant operation he has to face many tasks and challenges. To have a better understanding of the work of a chemical engineer let us consider the important activities undertaken by him 1. One process may be energy efficient than the other but the other may be less polluting or may have its raw materials readily available.

Selecting a process out from the available options is no easy job because each process has certain advantages and disadvantages. To select a process many constraints have to be faced such as time, available data, investment, and economics.

As all industries are mainly concerned with profits, out of all the constraints economics always remains the chief factor in selecting a process. Selecting a process to be in batches or to be continuous is another critical task.

Batches can be measured correctly and are much suitable for small-scale production. However, the temperature and pressure control can be troublesome. Furthermore time and resources lost in attaining the required conditions such as temperature and pressure, limits the use of batch processes. On the other hand, continuous processes require far smaller and less expensive equipment, have much less material in process, have less chance to ruin large quantities, have more uniform operating conditions, and give more uniform products than batch processes.

Continuous processes are very suitable for large-scale productions. However, these require concise control of flow-rates and conditions, which is impossible without high quality instrumentation. The reduction in plant cost per unit of production is often the major force in selecting a process to continuous or in batches.

Chemical processing of a raw material into the desired product can only be achieved by operating the chemical plant. The quality and quantity of the product is directly dependent on the efficient operation of a plant. The smooth operation of a plant is a very difficult task and requires close attention of the engineer at all times.

Many problems like temperature and pressure control, maintenance, and safety continue to arise during the plant operation. Experience and application of engineering principles is always needed to shoot out these problems. Negligence of a small problem can often lead to bigger, more complex problems and can cause unnecessary halts in production. In order to be able to handle plant operation smoothly, a chemical engineer should start early to become familiar with the industrial equipment such as pumps, compressors, distillation columns, filter presses, and heat exchangers, etc.

That is why every industry makes its new engineers spend their earlier time in tracing pipelines, an activity known as line tracing. The reason behind this practice is to intimately familiarize the engineers with all the pipelines, gauges, valves, and equipment of that industry so that whenever there is any fault in any section he should be able to identify the location and to work out its solution immediately.

In fact, troubleshooting is the core of plant operation. Successful plant operation of a chemical plant does not only depend upon the original strength of the materials of construction but also upon the affects of corrosion.

Constant check-ups and inspection must be maintained to avoid corrosion. Mechanical failures are seldom experienced unless there has been previous corrosion or weakening by chemical attack. Maintaining required temperature, pressure, flow-rates, and other conditions is a very difficult task.